The Fall of Languages

Worldwide

FThe      Fall      Of      Sumerian,      Akkadian, Hebrew,       Aramaic       And       Australian Aboriginal Languages Fall of the Sumerian language Sumerian,   the   first   language   of   civilization   in   the ancient    Middle    East,    preserved    on    clay    tablets and   dates   from   at   least   3400   BC.   It   was   spoken   by the    people    of    Sumer    -    Southern    Mesopotamia (modern-day       Iraq)       throughout       the       third millennium   BC.   Sumerian   generally   regarded   as a     language     isolate     in     linguistics     because     it belongs   to   no   known   language   family   including Semitic     (Arabic,     Hebrew,     Phoenician,     Syriac, Aramaic and many others). With   the   passage   of   time,   the   Sumerian   language became    the    prevailing    speech    of    the    land    and survived      as      the      basic      means      of      written communication   throughout   the   Middle   East   for over 3000 years, until around the time of Christ. The    Sumerians    developed    the    earliest    form    of writing   system   in   the   world,   which   remained   in use   for   more   than   34   centuries.   It   was   known   as “Cuneiform”      meaning      ‘wedge-shaped’      -      a pictographic    script,    with    hundreds    of    wedge- shaped   signs.   Through   repeated   use   over   time,   it became   simplified   and   more   abstract.   Intitially Cuneiform   was   written   in   columns   from   top   to bottom   but   later   came   to   be   written   from   left   to right      in      horizontal      rows,      usually      without separation   between   words.   The   first   documents unequivocally   written   in   the   Sumerian   language date   to   the   31st   century,   found   at   Jemdet   Nasr   - site   between   Baghdad   and   Babylon   in   southern Iraq.   Cuneiforms   were   inscribed   on   clay   tablets, on   which   symbols   were   drawn   with   a   blunt   reed for   a   stylus.   The   word   "cuneiform"   comes   from the Latin word cuneus, meaning "wedge." The   Sumerian   Cuneiform   script   became   the   most wide     spread     and     significant     writing     system throughout    the    Near    East.    It    was    borrowed    by over   fifty   nations   of   the   Near   East,   between   the Aegean     Sea     and     the     Zagros     mountains     and between      the      Black      Sea,      for      writing      their languages,       including:       the       Akkadians,       the Babylonians      and      later      the      Assyrians,      the Elamites,   the   Lullubi,   the   Eblaites,   the   Kassites, the     Hurrians,     the     Hittites,     the     Luwians,     the Urartians    (parts    of    modern    Persia    -    west¬ern Azerbaijan)     and     others.     It     also     inspired     the Ugaritic and Old Persian national alphabets. Sumerian   constitutes   the   oldest   known   literature in    the    world,    represented    by    texts    of    varied nature,   such   as   hymns,   epics,   prayers,   proverbs, literary    and    religious    texts,    laws,    as    well    as mathematics,    astronomy,    medicine,    economic transactions and historical record of kings. There   are   now   tens   of   thousands   of   clay   tablets and    cylinder-seals    containing    Sumerian    texts describing       everything       from       taxation       and administrative records to essays and literature. After    the    fall    of    Sumer,    the    study    of    Sumerian language   continued   during   the   eras   of   Akkadian, Babylonian   and   Assyrian   kingdoms   as   late   as   the 5th century BC. Ashurbanipal,   one   of   the   last   great   rulers   of   the Assyrian   Empire   (668   BC   –   c.   627   BC),   was   able   to read   the   Sumerian   language.   He   established   the first     systematically     organized     library     in     the ancient   Middle   East,   collected   thousands   of   clay tablets     and     fragments     written     in     Cuneiform script      from      all      over      Mesopotamia,      which included        hymns        and        prayers,        medical, mathematical,   ritual,   divinatory   and   astrological texts,     alongside     all     sorts     of     administrative documents,    royal    inscriptions,    chronicles    and various   religious   texts.   Others   relate   to   medicine, astronomy,   and   literature.   Among   his   collection was     also     the     famous     Epic     of     Gilgamesh,     a masterpiece   of   ancient   poetry,   and   the   Enuma Elis   -   tells   of   the   Creation   of   the   World   and   story of     Adapa     –     the     first     person,     who     brought civilisation,    arts    and    crafts    to    Sumer    after    the Great Flood. Who were the Sumerians?  They   were   the   Sumerians,   who   gave   first   settled life    to    the    hunters    and    gatherers,    established cities   and   urbanized   the   society   based   on   art   and culture. In   the   absence   of   laws   and   social   order   during the    nomadic    age,    the    Sumerians    created    gods and   goddesses   to   run   the   society   through   divine rulings.   They   introduced   Trinity   of   superior   gods -   An,   Enlil   and   Enki,   democratic   in   behaviour;   no god   had   absolute   power;   every   one   had   to   seek approval   of   their   proposals   from   the   Assembly   of the   Great   gods.   System   of   check   and   balances   for gods   was   also   introduced;   for   misconduct,   even gods     were     punished     by     their     superior     gods. When,    one    of    the    greatest    gods    Enlil    forced himself   upon   the   goddess   Ninlil   and   raped   her, he   was   condemned   to   the   Underworld   for   having incurred a major crime. They    were    the    Sumerians    who    founded    a    well organized       religion,       evolved       a       system       of priesthood   and   recorded   the   story   of   Great   Flood (or    the    Deluge)    that    raged    for    seven    days    and seven    nights.    They    also    described    the    Epic    of Creation:   the   creation   of   the   universe   and   human beings;   as   how   the   human   beings   were   created from clay. They   were   the   first   to   devise   me   (to   be)   -   decrees of   the   gods,   guarded   by   Enki   -   god   of   life   and wisdom,    lord    of    the    Earth    and    master    of    all knowing.     Enki     was     also     depicted     with     two streams   of   water   emanating   from   his   shoulders, one the Tigris, the other the Euphrates. The         Sumerians         established         city-states, independent   and   sovereign;   every   state   had   its own   god,   with   a   shrine   in   the   centre   of   each   city. They     introduced     first     democratic     system     of governance   as   the   political   power   remained   in the hands of the citizens. They   were   the   Sumerians   who   invented   plow   and the    wheel    -    first    mechanical    device    and    four- wheeled   chariot   and   potter's   wheel.   For   all   these achievements   they   gave   entire   credit   to   their   god Enki.    They    established    schools,    created    highly advanced      literature      and      developed      a      well organized system of irrigation and agriculture. The   Sumerians   were   the   first   literate   nation,   who for   the   first   time   gave   a   system   of   laws,   received by   them   from   their   gods,   which   influenced   the law   code   of   Hammurabi,   emperor   of   Babylonia, who   also   claimed   that   he   had   received   the   Law Code from the Sun god Shamash. They   were   the   Sumerians   who   formulated   ethics, developed        art        and        architecture,        crafts, established   specialized   industries,   developed   an extensive     commerce,     built     seaworthy     ships, which   plied   throughout   the   Persian   Gulf,   down   to the    Indus    Valley,    carrying    various    processed goods   and   bringing   back   the   raw   materials   and finished     goods.     They     recorded     every     major business   transaction   and   legal   agreements   of   all kinds.   They   constructed   huge   buildings,   palaces and   ziggurats   and   made   use   of   more   advanced materials    and    techniques,    such    as    buttresses, recesses,   half   columns,   and   clay   nails.   Even   they know     how     to     melt     iron.     They     made     stock breeding,   fishing,   raised   cattle,   sheep,   goats,   pigs and   grew   wheat,   barley,   chickpeas,   lentils,   millet, turnips,   dates,   onions,   garlic,   lettuce,   leeks   and mustard. They   were   the   Sumerians   who   for   the   first   time recognized    and    cataloged    the    brightest    stars, noted   the   movements   of   the   five   visible   planets   - Mercury,    Venus,    Mars,    Jupiter,    and    Saturn,    as well   as   the   Sun   and   Moon   amongst   the   stars   of the   Zodiac.   They   formulated   the   earliest   concepts in   algebra   and   geometry   and   developed   the   units of   time   -   one   hour   into   60   minutes,   created   a lunar   calendar   with   a   day   of   24   hours   and   a   week of   seven   days.   They   introduced   a   mathematical notation   based   upon   60,   which   has   given   us   our sixty-second   minute,   our   sixty-minute   hour   and our    division    of    the    circle    into    360    degrees.    A system     of     weights     and     measures     were     also developed   which   served   the   ancient   world   until the Roman period. Sumer   –   Land   of   the   Lords   of   Brightness   or   Land of   the   Lords   of   the   Sun,   was   also   called   Shinar, Shumer,      Sumeria,      Sumer      and      Akkad      and Babylonia;         Greeks         called         the         region "Mesopotamia",   meaning   “the   Land   between   the Rivers"   or   Beth-Nahrin   (two   rivers)   in   Aramaic.   In modern   political   terms   this   covers   the   country   of Iraq and parts of Syria and Turkey. Sumer   was   first   settled   between   4500   and   4000 BC,    by    the    people    later    known    as    “Ubedians    - non-Semitic    who    did    not    speak    the    Sumerian language.”   After   a   gap   of   few   hundred   years,   in about     3800     BC,     another     people     of     unknown ethnic,    migrated    from    the    unknown    areas    and settled   along   the   southern   portions   of   the   valley of      the      Euphrates      and      Tigris      Rivers.      The newcomers,   who   became   known   as   Sumerians, overwhelmed     the     Ubaidians.     They     spoke     an agglutinative    language    unrelated    apparently    to any   other   known   language.   In   the   centuries,   that followed     the     immigration     of     the     Sumerians, made Sumer, the cradle of civilization. The     history     of     Sumer     is     solely     based     on fragmentary   writings   on   clay   tablets;   the   name Sumer   probably   dates   from   about   the   beginning of   the   3rd   millennium   BC.   The   Sumerians,   with   a language,     culture,     and     perhaps     appearance, differed     from     their     Semitic     neighbors     and successors.   They   described   themselves   as   "the black-headed   people"   (sag-gi-ga),   their   language eme.gir   and   called   their   land   Kien-gi(r)   meaning "civilized     land."     However,     the     origin     of     the Sumerians   is   uncertain.   They   probably   migrated from    the    neighbouring    areas,    from    Anatolia    or from   Iran   or   from   the   south   through   the   Persian Gulf,   either   from   Indus   Valley   or   the   Caspian   Sea. Nothing is certain. Their   literature   speaks   of   their   homeland   being Dilmun      (island      of      Bahrain),      but      no      ruins comparable    in    age    and    complexity    to    those    of Sumer     have     been     found     in     the     proposed locations   of   Dilmun.   It   could   be   the   Indus   Valley, then   the   most   civilized   nation   in   the   world;   both the   peoples   of   Sumer   and   the   Indus   Valley   had cordial    relarions    for    thousands    of    years;    they commonly   trade   on   large   scale   via   Delmun   –   the dumping    ground    for    both    the    countries.    The Sumerian       language       also       had       a       remote relationship     with     Dravidian     languages,     then spoken   by   the   people   of   the   Indus   Valley.   Since the   excavation   of   Mohen   Jo   Daro   –   the   central location    of    the    Indus    Valley    could    have    been done   up   to   10   per   cent   only,   the   course   of   history might change if further excavation is made. However,   after   the   arrival   of   the   Sumerians,   we find   well   established   modern   cities   around   the Lower    Tigris    and    Euphrates    rivers,    known    as Adab,   Akshak,   Eridu,   Kish,   Lagash,   Larak,   Larsa, Nippur,    Sippar,    Umma,    Ur,    and    Uruk.    Each    city was   centered   on   a   temple   dedicated   to   the   patron god   or   goddess   of   the   city   and   ruled   over   by   a priest   called.   Later   most   of   the   major   cities   were converted      into      sovereign,      democratic      and independent       city-states       managed       by       the individual rulers, generally called Ensi. The   city   states   survived   for   about   millennia   until 2800   BC.   Then,   suddenly   in   the   city   of   Kish   (Tall al-Uhaymir),      35      miles      south-southeast      of Baghdad,       its       ruler       Etana,       abolished       the democratic   form   of   governance,   proclaimed   him self   as   the   king   (lugal)   and   laid   the   foundation   of Etana      dynasty.      In      due      course,      he      hired mercaneries   on   large   scale   and   within   a   short period,   by   way   of   conquest   occupied   all   the   city states of Sumer. Finally Etana declared:             “now   onward,   instead   of   people,   he   would   only remain     responsible     to     the     gods,     who     has choosen   him   as   their   representative.   Now   it   was the   religious   duty   of   his   ‘subjects’   to   accept   his rule as a part of the plan of the gods.” This    was    the    first    major    incident    in    human history   when   “conquests”   were   declared   as   part of   the   plan   of   the   gods.   It   was   the   beginning   of the   endless   bloody   wars   to   be   fought   in   future   for occupying    the    lands,    resources    and    wealth    of others   through   military   might.   Subsequently   in Sumer,    its    Golden    Age    abruptly    vanished.    The word   “people”   was   transformed   into   subject   and slave.   Atana,   the   first   Sumerian   ruler   of   historical record,    also    claimed    divine    rights    being    the “chosen    representative    of    gods”    thus    laid    the foundation     of     despotic     rulers;     whose     orders became the orders of gods. To   give   religious   cover   to   the   kingship   of   Etana,   a story   was   fabricated   and   popularized   by   which the people were told that:             “King   Etana   rode   to   heaven   on   the   back   of   a giant   Eagle,   where   he   was   well   received   by   the gods    and    achieved    the    title    of    “first    ruler    of mankind on earth.” At   a   later   stage,   Etana   was   defied   and   became god   of   Sumer.   However,   following   the   footsteps   of Etana,   shortly   after   his   reign,   kingship   was   also declared   in   the   city   of   Uruk   (Erech)   by   its   ruler Meskiaggasher,   who   declared   himself   the   "son   of Utu    -    the    Sun    god.    He    hired    the    services    of mercenaries   and   occupied   all   of   the   Sumerian city   states,   down   to   the   areas   extending   from   the Mediterranean    Sea    to    the    Zagros    Mountains.    It was     the     time,     when     cylinder     seals     of     Uruk recorded the following scenes:             “fettered   men   lying   or   squatting   on   the   ground, being   beaten   with   sticks   or   otherwise   maltreated by    standing    figures.    They    may    represent    the execution of prisoners of war.” These     seals     were     the     first,     albeit     indirect, evidence    for    the    wars    that    became    henceforth one   of   the   most   characteristic   phenomena   in   the history    of    Sumer.    The    defeated    nations    were compelled    to    pay    heavy    tributes    and    to    hand over   their   sons   to   be   consumed   in   wars.   Most   of the   people   were   declared   slaves   with   this   plea: “their   gods   had   given   them   victory   to   rule   the inferior     people.”     The     conquerors     commonly propagated   that   the   wars   were   fought   for   a   just cause in accordance with the plan of the gods. However,    for    the    first    time    in    human    history, these   wars   gave   rise   to   the   “military   institutions” and   “slavery”   which   became   the   main   feature   of the Sumerian society. King   Meskiaggasher,   after   death,   was   succeeded by   his   son   Enmerkar   (around   2750   BC).   During his               days,               Ensuhkeshdanna               (or Ensukushsiranna)   ruler   of   Aratta,   one   of   the   city states   situated   in   the   northeastern   part   of   Sumer, revolted    against    him.    Subsequently    Enmerkar prepared   for   war   against   Aratta.   The   event   was recorded in the Sumerian epic, it says:                 “Enmerkar,    son    of    the    sun    god    Utu,    was envious   of   Aratta's   wealth   of   metal   and   stones, which     he     needed     in     order     to     build     various shrines,   especially   a   temple   for   the   god   Enki   in Eridu.   Enmerkar   prayed   the   goddess   Inanna   to help   him   in   acquiring   material   and   manpower from Aratta.” Finally,   there   was   a   bloody   war   in   between   the two   rulers,   Enmerkar   -   the   favourite   of   the   gods, won   decicively   the   war   and   occupied   Aratta.   This incident   was   also   recorded   in   the   Sumerian   epic entitled   -   Enmerkar   and   the   Lord   of   Aratta   -   its introductory lines are worth reading:     “Once upon a time     there was no snake,     there was no scorpion,     there was no hyena, there was no lion,     there was no wild dog, no wolf,     there was no fear, no terror,     and humans had no rival.     There was no confusion     among various peoples     speaking different languages,     with everyone praising the gods     in one language.”    The   Golden   Age   of   the   Sumerians   was   over.   Now there   were   creatures,   snakes,   scorpions,   hyenas and   wild   dogs   in   the   shape   of   armies   and   kings. The   peace   of   the   region   ended.   The   common   men were     terrorized,     dragged     in     wars     and     killed. Enmerkar,    by    way    of    conquest    also    captured areas down to Elam (Iran). However,    it    was    Uruk    -    whose    rulers    imposed their    own    language    “eme-gir”    as    the    official language   of   all   the   occupied   city   states   of   Sumer. Subsequently   from   Uruk   down   to   the   Elum   (Iran) the     defeated     people     had     to     learn     eme-gir language      of      their      masters.      Probably      the Cuneiform   Script   was   also   developed   in   the   city of     Uruk.     Later,     Eme-gir     was     known     as     the Sumerian    language,    which    ultimately    became the   prevailing   speech   of   the   land.   As   a   result,   all the   other   dialects   including   eme-sal,   gradually lost   their   importance,   but   remained   in   use   for the composition of hymns and incantations. To   please   Innana   –   considered   to   be   the   Mother Goddess   and   the   goddess   of   love   and   war,   and the     queen     of     the     sky     and     heavens,     huge ziggurats   were   built   in   the   city   of   Uruk,   by   using gold,   silver,   and   copper   on   large   scale.   Even   for An    –    Head    of    the    Sumerian    pantheon,    god    of Heaven,   ziggurats   were   also   built.   Subsequently Uruk   became   the   centre   of   worship   as   well   as   the first   sacred   city   in   the   region.   Modern   name   of Iraq is derived from Uruk. King   Enmerkar   was   over   thrown   by   Lugalbanda, one    of    his    army    commanders,    who    was    also deposed   by   Enmebaragesi   (Me-baragesi),   king   of the   Etana   dynasty,   based   at   Kish   (around   2700 BC).   Again   the   seat   of   power   shifted   from   Uruk   to Kish.     For     Enmebaragesi,     it     is     known     from inscriptions    of    his    own    time,    which    reads    "he, despoiled the weapons of the land of Elam." Enmebaragesi    constructed    a    huge    Temple    at Nippur,   in   honour   of   Enlil   -   one   of   the   greatest gods   of   Sumer,   who   was   also   considered   as   the king   of   kings,   Lord   of   the   Earth   and   master   of humanity.   It   was   the   authority   of   Enlil,   to   choose the   earthly   rulers   and   to   place   the   holy   crown   on their   heads.   For   Enlil,   it   is   said,   he   created   man   at the    city    of    Nippur    -    situated    almost    160    km southeast    of    Baghdad.    Eventually,    instead    of Uruk,   the   city   of   Nippur   achieved   the   honour   of being the most sacred city of the region. King    Enmebaragesi    was    succeeded    by    his    son Agga,   the   last   ruler   of   the   Etana   dynasty.   During his   days   the   city   state   of   Uruk   revolted   against Agga   and   declared   independence   under   its   ruler Gilgamesh,   who   had   covered   the   city   of   Uruk   with huge   walls   to   defend   his   people   from   external threats.      Subsequently      Agga,      king      of      Kish besieged    the    city    of    Uruk    and    sent    envoys    to Gilgamesh     with     an     ultimatum.     An     ancient account says the following story: “Agga   having   besieged   Uruk   Gilgamesh   went   to his   city's   elders,   suggesting   that   they   not   submit but   fight   with   weapons.   However,   the   elders   came to    the    opposite    conclusion.    So    Gilgamesh    took his   proposal   to   the   "men   of   the   city,"   and   they agreed   with   him.   Gilgamesh   was   elated   and   said to     his     servant     Enkidu,     "Now,     then,     let     the (peaceful)   tool   be   put   aside   for   the   violence   of battle."   Gilgamesh   then   asked   for   a   volunteer   to go   to   Agga.   Birhurturre,   the   head   man,   went   and withstood      torture;      but      when      the      awesome Gilgamesh   ascended   the   wall   and   was   seen   by the    foes,    the    foreigners    felt    overwhelmed    and abandoned the siege.” Gilgamesh    is    the    best    known    of    all    ancient heroes,   a   demi-god,   whose   deeds   are   celebrated in   stories   and   legends,   such   as:   "Gilgamesh   and Huwawa,"    "Gilgamesh    and    the    Bull    of    Heaven," "Gilgamesh,   Enkidu,   and   the   Nether   World,"   and "The   Death   of   Gilgamesh."   However,   the   epics   of Gilgamesh   are   generally   regarded   as   the   greatest literature     of     the     ancient     world.     After     death, Gilgamesh was buried under the river bed. After   the   breakup   of   Uruk,   the   city   state   of   Ur   also revolted    against    Agga    of    Etana    dynasty    and declared   independence.   Subsequently   Agga   was defeated     by     Mesanepada,     ruler     of     Ur,     who occupied    territories    of    the    Kish    kingdom    and founded   the   1st   Dynasty   of   Ur   by   about   2670   BC. He     declared     Ur     the     capital     of     his     kingdom, located    near    the    mouth    of    the    Euphrates    and Tigris rivers on the Persian Gulf. It   was   Ur   Dynasty,   whose   kings,   after   death   were buried   along   with   a   whole   retinue   of   their   court officials,     servants,     and     women,     privileged     to continue   their   service   in   the   next   world.   When the   excavation   of   the   royal   tombs   were   carried, they    contained    almost    incredible    treasures    in gold,    silver,    bronze    and    semiprecious    stones along       with       musical       instruments,       golden weapons,      engraved      shell      plaques,      mosaic pictures,   statuary   as   well   as   the   carved   cylinder seals. Now   it   became   fun   rather   matter   of   pride   for   the rulers    of    the    city    states    of    Sumer,    to    conquer each others territories. After   a   gap   of   around   one   and   half   century,   in around   2525   BC,   the   rulers   of   the   city   of   Lagash (Telloh),         declared         independence,         under Lugalanemundu   (around   2525   -   2500   BC)   who   by way    of    conquest,    occupied    the    entire    Sumer, extending   further   territory   from   the   Zagros   down to   the   Taurus   mountains   and   from   the   Persian Gulf    to    the    Mediterranean    Sea.    His    successors continued   to   rule   the   region   for   over   a   century. All   the   defeated   nations   had   to   pay   tributes   and to   hand   over   their   sons   to   be   utilized   in   wars,   as well   as   they   had   to   follow   the   Sumerian   gods   and goddesses,   together   with   the   Sumerian   language and culture. Eannatum   (c.   2450   BC),   one   of   the   rulers   of   the city   of   Lagash,   while   commanding   personally   his army,   conquered   much   of   Sumer,   including   Ur, Nippur,     Akshak,     Larsa,     and     Uruk.     He     also annexed   the   kingdom   of   Kish.   He   made   city   of Umma   a   tributary,   where   every   person   had   to   pay a   certain   amount   of   grain   into   the   treasury   of   the goddess   Nina   and   the   god   Ingurisa.   Eannatum also    conquered    parts    of    Elam    and    demanded tribute   as   far   as   Mari.   Eannatum   attributed   his victory    to    Ninurta    -    god    of    war,    under    whose protection   and   blessings,   he   was   able   to   win   the wars. Uru-inim-gina   (r.c   2358   BC   -   2350   BC),   the   last ruler   of   Lagash,   while   assuming   the   title   of   king, claimed   to   have   been   divinely   appointed,   upon the      downfall      of      his      corrupt      predecessor, Lugalanda.   He   is   best   known   for   his   social   and ethical   reforms,   cited   as   the   first   conceptions   of human    rights;    he    initiated    laws    to    protect    the poor and less privileged class. Uru-inim-gina    exempted    widows    and    orphans from   taxes,   limited   the   power   of   the   priesthood and   large   property   holders.   He   decreed   that   the administrators   no   longer   plunder   the   orchards   of the   poor.   He   cleared   and   cancelled   obligations for   those   indentured   families,   citizens   of   Lagash living   as   debtors   because   of   taxes.   He   solemnly promised   god   Ningirsu   (protector   of   Lagash)   that he   would   never   subjugate   the   waif   and   the   widow to    the    powerful.    He    removed    corrupt    officials from    office    and    enacted    legislation    to    protect property   rights.   He   is   also   said   to   have   abolished the   former   custom   of   polyandry   in   his   country, on   pain   of   the   woman,   taking   multiple   husbands being stoned with rocks. Under   the   former   ruler   of   Lugalanda,   the   temple of   Lagash   controlled   the   populace   through   direct control    of    much    of    the    farmland    and    heavy taxation.    Corrupt    priests    and    temple    officials grafted     and     stole     property     from     the     people. According to an anonymous writer of the time: “The   man   in   charge   of   the   boatmen   seized   the boats.    The    head    shepherd    seized    the    donkeys. The   head   shepherd   seized   the   sheep.   The   man   in charge   of   the   fisheries   seized   the   fisheries.”   In order   to   conduct   a   funeral,   the   priests   charged the   family   of   the   deceased   420   loaves   of   bread,   21 gallons    of    barley,    a    turban,    a    bed,    a    suit    of clothing   and   7   jars   of   beer.   The   writer   concludes: “From   the   borders   of   the   god   Ningirsu   to   the   sea, there were the tax collectors.” Uru-inim-gina   banned   the   man   in   charge   of   the boatmen   from   seizing   the   boats.   He   banned   the head   shepherds   from   seizing   the   donkeys   and the   sheep.   He   also   banned   the   man   in   charge   of the   fisheries   from   seizing   the   fisheries.   The   cost of   a   funeral   was   reduced   to   a   bed,   a   turban,   80 loaves   of   bread,   3   1/2   gallons   of   barley,   and   3   jars of beer. Unfortunately,   Uru-inim-gina   reforms   were   to   be short-lived.   He   could   reign   only   for   eight   years. In   about   2350   BC,   Lugalzaggesi,   the   ruler   of   the city    state    of    Umma,    invaded    and    established domination   over   Lagash,   burnt   the   shrines   and carried   off   the   divine   image   of   Ningirsu   –   god   of war,   mainly   worshipped   in   Lagash.   Assuming   the existence      of      moral      justice      the      chronicler lamented:                 "The    men    of    Umma,    by    the    despoiling    of Lagash,   have   committed   a   sin   against   the   god Ningirsu.   As   for   Lugalzagesi,   ensi   of   Umma,   may his   goddess   Nidaba   make   him   bear   his   mortal sin upon his head." However,   Lugalzaggesi   went   further;   seized   Uruk, Lagash,   Kish,   Ur,   Nippur,   Larsa   and   then   extended his   kingdom   "from   the   Lower   Sea   (Persian   Gulf), along   the   Tigris   and   Euphrates,   to   the   Upper   Sea." He   became   the   most   powerful   ruler   in   the   region, and     according     to     the     Sumerian     king     list, Lugalzagesi   ruled   for   25   (or   34)   years.   This   was the   period   when   various   Semite   tribes,   including Akkadians,    had    migrated    from    the    Syrian    and Arabian   deserts   and   were   settled   on   large   scale in   the   city   states   of   Sumer;   they   also   acquired high positions in the government. Lugalzagesi,    ethnically    proved    to    be    the    last native    ruler    of    Sumer    as    he    was    defeated    and replaced   by   Sargon   –   an   Akkadian   migrant,   who was   cup-bearer   in   the   palace   of   the   king   of   Kish. Sargon   had   conspired   against   his   master,   killed him    and    usurped    the    throne    of    Kish.    Sargon defeated   and   arrested   Lugalzagesi,   dragged   him to    the    gate    of    the    god    Enlil    in    a    dog    color    at Nippur, where he was beheaded in 2330 BC. Sargon   fought   34   battles,   defeated   and   arrested 50   rulers;   conquered   Assyria,   Mari,   Iarmuti,   and Ebla,   and   ultimately   established   one   of   the   first greatest    empires    in    the    ancient    world    which stretched     as     far     as     the     Mediterranean     Sea, northern   Syria,   southern   Anatolia   down   to   Magan (Oman).   Sargon   also   captured   and   burned   Susa, capital   city   of   the   Elamites,   in   the   western   Iran, where   the   only   truly   contemporary   record   of   his reign    has    been    uncovered.    He    founded    a    new capital,   called   Agade   and   redesignated   the   land of    Sumer    as    Sumer    and    Akkad.    According    to legend,    Sargon    travelled    as    far    as    the    Greek island   of   Crete.   In   token   of   his   conquests,   images of    Sargon    were    erected    on    the    shores    of    the Mediterranean. It   was   the   major   turning   point   in   the   history   of the   Middle   East,   when   Sargon   for   the   first   time changed   the   Sumerian   pantheon   and   introduced a   triad   of   deities:   Shamash   (Shams),   Ishtar   and Sin    –    originally    worshipped    by    the    Akkadian tribe.   It   was   made   public   to   believe   that   most   of the       Sumerian       gods       and       goddesses       had surrendered    their    authorities    in    favour    of    the Akkadian    gods    and    goddesses.    The    authorities and   attributes   of   the   Sumerian   sun-god   Utu   were shifted   to   Shamash,   who   then   became   the   first universal    god    –    conqueror    of    night    and    death, bringer       of       light       and       the       upholder       of righteousness   and   law.   For   Shamash,   it   was   also told   that   he   is   the   ruler   of   the   whole   universe   as well   as   judge   of   both   gods   and   men.   In   the   same process,   authorities   and   attributes   of   Nanna   son of      Enlil      –      Sumerian      god      of      moon,      were transferred   to   Sin.   Nanna   was   the   son   of   Enlil, then    worshipped    exclusively    in    the    city    of    Ur. Likewise,    the    attributes    and    authorities    of    the Sumerian   Mother   goddess   Inanna,   were   shifted to    the    Akkadian    diety    Ishtar.    In    her    honour, Sargon    founded    Agade,    the    capital    city    of    his empire,   and   she   was   declared   as   the   goddess   of war   and   love.   All   women   were   required   at   least once   in   their   lifetime   to   go   for   pilgrimage   to   the Temple of Ishtar. To    impose    the    Akkadian    (Semitic)    culture    over the    defeated    nations,    a    new    different    style    of dress     both     for     men     and     women     was     also introduced    -    a    large    piece    of    wool    or    linen, draped around the body over a skirt. Sargon    took    another    major    step    by    imposing Akkadian    –    a    dialect,    without    its    own    literary tradition,   as   the   official   language   of   his   empire; arrangements    were    made    to    borrow,    Sumerian Cuneiform   script   for   the   new   Akkadian   language. Sargon   completely   ignored   the   Sumerian,   mother tongue   of   the   Sumerians   as   well   as   the   official language   of   most   of   the   city   states   of   Sumer.   It was    also    the    most    advance    language    of    the ancient world. However,   the   Akkadian   empire   survived   for   142 years   and   during   this   period   the   Akkadian   tribal gods     and     goddesses     acquired     the     universal status;   they   were   worshipped   on   large   scale   all over    the    empire.    Side    by    side,    the    Akkadian language    reached    to    its    height    within    a    short period   and   was   used   extensively   throughout   the Akkadian   empire.   It   ultimately   became   the   lingo franca    of    the    Middle    East.    Subsequently    the Sumerian      lost      its      importance      as      spoken language,   but   continued   to   be   used   as   a   sacred language   of   religion,   literature,   and   many   arts.   It was   the   beginning   of   the   decline   of   the   Sumerian language. After   a   gap   of   around   three   hundred   years,   the rulers    of    the    city    state    of    Ur    emerged    as    the conquerors;   they   occupied   most   of   the   areas   of Sumer      and      Akkad      under      Ur-Nammu      and established   the   Third   dynasty   of   Ur   in   2112   BC. He     revised     the     original     Sumerian     pantheon, previously   altered   during   the   Akkadian   period   of Sargon     of     Akkad.     Eventually     the     gods     and goddesses   of   Sumer   were   raised   to   their   original status. Ur-Nammu   also   reestablished   the   Sumerian,   as the   official   language   of   Sumer   and   Akkad.   This was   the   period   when   the   Akkadian   had   become the   most   popular   language   of   this   region   and   the Sumerian    more    or    less    had    ceased    to    be    a spoken language. Ur-Nammu   amulgamated   a   legal   code,   the   Code of   Ur-Nammu,   oldest   known   code   in   the   world, more    advance    in    its    approach,    written    in    the Sumerian   language.   In   the   prologue,   Ur-Nammu is    described    as    a    divinely    appointed    king,    a mighty    warrior,    king    of    Ur,    king    of    Sumer    and Akkad,   by   the   mighty   of   Nanna   (Sumerian   moon god),   lord   of   the   city   of   Ur,   and   in   accordance   with the     true     word     of     Utu     (Sumerian     Sun     god) established    "equity    in    the    land."    Some    of    the clauses   of   the   Code   reads:   If   a   man   knocks   out   a tooth   of   another   man,   he   shall   pay   two   shekels   of silver;    if    a    man    commits    a    murder,    that    man must   be   killed;   if   a   man   commits   a   robbery,   he will    be    killed;    if    a    man    violates    the    right    of another   and   deflowers   the   virgin   wife   of   a   young man,   they   shall   kill   that   male;   if   a   man   divorces his   first-time   wife,   he   shall   pay   her   one   mina   of silver;   if   a   man   appeared   as   a   witness,   and   was shown    to    be    a    perjurer,    he    must    pay    fifteen shekels   of   silver;   if   a   man   appears   as   a   witness, but   withdraws   his   oath,   he   must   make   payment, to   the   extent   of   the   value   in   litigation   of   the   case; If   a   man   flooded   the   field   of   a   man   with   water,   he shall   measure   out   three   kur   of   barley   per   iku   of field. King   Ur   Nammu   was   also   a   prodigious   builder   of a    number    of    stepped    temples    called    ziggurats and   temple-palaces   based   on   Sumerian   culture, at    various    cities    including    Nippur,    Larsa,    Kish, Adab, and Umma, and the Great Ziggurat in Ur. However,   Ur-Nammu   and   his   descendants   made serious     attempts     continuously     for     around     a century   (c.   2112   -   c.   2004);   they   ultimately   revived the   Sumerian   language,   culture   and   the   original pantheon   of   gods   and   goddesses   of   Sumer.   It   was a 'Sumerian Renaissance.' After    death,    Ur-nammu    was    succeeded    by    his son    Shulgi,    who    ruled    the    empire    for    over    47 years   (2095   –   2047   BC).   He   also   promoted   with   full force    the    Sumerian    language    and    culture,    re- organized      Sumerian      system      of      city-states, governed    by    an    ensi    and    claimed    the    title    of ‘King   of   the   Four   Quarters.’   He   declared   him   self a   god   and   was   worshipped   during   and   after   his lifetime.   The   name   of   ‘divine   Shulgi’   was   given   to a     month     of     the     Sumerian     calendar.     Twice monthly    offerings    were    made    to    his    statues throughout his kingdom. During    the    period    of    the    Third    Ur    dynasty,    the Amorites   –   Semitic   tribes   of   the   desert   areas   of Syria   and   Canaan   started   migrations   towards   the areas     of     Sumer     and     Akkad.     They     kept     on migrating   and   had   become   such   a   fierce   force that     it     became     very     difficult     to     halt     their movements.    To    stop    their    further    migrations, Shu-Sin   (2037-2029)   king   of   the   Third   Ur   dynasty constructed   a   170   mile   wall   from   the   Tigris   to   the Euphrates.      Under      such      circumstances,      the Elamites    (inhabiting    parts    of    the    present    day Iran),    invaded    Ur,    defeated    its    armed    forces, burnt   the   city   and   massacred   the   citizens.   The king   of   the   Third   Ur   dynasty   Ibbi-Sin   (2029-2002) was    arrested    and    dragged    in    chains    to    Elum, where    he    died    in    captivity.    The    incident    was recorded, with the following wordings:     0 Father Nanna (the Sumerian moon god),     that city into ruins was made ...     Its people, not potsherds, filled its sides;     its walls were breached;     the people groan.     In its lofty gates,     where they were wont to promenade,     dead bodies were lying about;     in its boulevards,     where the feasts were celebrated, scattered they lay.     In all its streets,     where they were wont to promenade,     dead bodies were lying about;     in its places,     where the festivities of the land took place,     the people lay in heaps ...     Ur - its weak and its strong     Perished, through hunger;     mothers and fathers,     who did not leave their houses     were overcome by fire;     The young, lying on their mothers' laps,     like fish were carried off by the waters;     In the city the wife was abandoned,     the son was abandoned,     the possessions were scattered about...     0 Nanna, Ur has been destroyed,     its people have been dispersed.       CONTINUE ON NEXT PAGE - CLICK HERE